A Timeline of Biotechnology

1750 B.C.

• The Sumerians brew beer.

500 B.C.

• The Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils.

A.D. 100

• Powdered chrysanthemum is used in China as an insecticide.

1590

• The microscope is invented by Janssen.

1663

• Cells are first described by Hooke.

1675

• Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria.

1797

• Jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox.

1830

• Proteins are discovered.

1833

• The first enzymes are isolated.

1855

• The Escherichia coli (E. Coli) bacterium is discovered. It later becomes a major research, development and production tool for biotechnology.

1863

• Mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits are transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later called genes. His observations laid the groundwork for the field of genetics.

1869

• Miescher discovers DNA in the sperm of trout.

1877

• A technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by Koch.

1878

• The first centrifuge is developed by Laval.

1879

• Fleming discovers chromatin, the rod-like structures inside the cell nucleus that later came to be called chromosomes.
• In Michigan, Darwin devotee William James Beal makes the first clinically controlled crosses of corn in search of colossal yields.

1900

• Drosophila (fruit flies) used in early studies of genes.

1902

• The term "immunology" first appears.

1906

• The term "genetics" is introduced.

1911

• The first cancer-causing virus is discovered by Rous.

1914

• Bacteria are used to treat sewage for the first time in Manchester, England.

1915

• Phages, or bacterial viruses, are discovered.

1919

• The word "biotechnology" is first used by a Hungarian agricultural engineer.

1920

• The human growth hormone is discovered by Evans and Long.

1928

• Fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic.

1938

• The term "molecular biology" is coined.

1940

• American Oswald Avery demonstrates that DNA is the "transforming factor" and is the material of genes.

1941

• The term "genetic engineering" is first used by Danish microbiologist A. Jost in a lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast at the technical Institute in Lwow, Poland.

1942

• The electron microscope is used to identify and characterize a bacteriophage - a virus that infects bacteria.

1944

• Waksman isolates streptomycin, an effective antibiotic for TB.

1946

• Discovery that genetic material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus, an example of genetic recombination.

1947

• McClintock discovers transposable elements, or "jumping genes," in corn.

1949

• Pauling shows that sickle cell anemia is a "molecular disease" resulting from a mutation in the protein molecule hemoglobin.

1950

• Artificial insemination of livestock using frozen semen (a longtime dream of farmers) is successfully accomplished.

1953

• Nature publishes James Watson's and Francis Crick's manuscript describing the double helical structure of DNA, which marks the beginning of the modern era of genetics.

1954

• Cell-culturing techniques are developed.

1955

• An enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time.

1956

• The fermentation process is perfected in Japan. Kornberg discovers the enzyme DNA polymerase I, leading to an understanding of how DNA is replicated.

1958

• Sickle cell anemia is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid.

1959

• Systemic fungicides are developed. The steps in protein biosynthesis are delineated.

Also in the 1950s

• Discovery of interferons.
• First synthetic antibiotic.

1960

• Exploiting base pairing, hybrid DNA-RNA molecules are created.
• Messenger RNA is discovered.

1964

• The International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines starts the Green Revolution with new strains of rice that double the yield of previous strains if given sufficient fertilizer.

1965

• Harris and Watkins successfully fuse mouse and human cells.

1966

• The genetic code is cracked, demonstrating that a sequence of three nucleotide bases (a condon) determines each of 20 amino acids.

1967

• The first automatic protein sequencer is perfected.

1969

• An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first time.

1970

• Specific restriction nucleases are identified, opening the way for gene cloning.
• First complete synthesis of a gene.

1971

• Discovery of restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic material.

1972

• The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99 percent similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.
• Initial work with embryo transfer.

1973

• Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perfect genetic engineering techniques to cut and paste DNA (using restriction enzymes and ligases) and reproduce the new DNA in bacteria.

1974

• The National Institutes of Health forms a Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to oversee recombinant genetic research.

1975

• Asilomar Conference (moratorium on genetic engineering research).
• The first monoclonal antibodies are produced.

1976

• The tools of recombinant DNA are first applied to a human inherited disorder.
• Molecular hybridization is used for the prenatal diagnosis of alpha thalassemia.
• Yeast genes are expressed in E. coli bacteria.
• DNA sequencing discovered; first working synthetic gene.

1977

• First expression of human gene in bacteria.
  
  Methods for reading DNA sequence using electrophoresis are discovered.

1978

• High-level structure of virus first identified.
• Recombinant human insulin first produced.
• North Carolina scientists show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.

1979

• Human growth hormone first synthesized.

Also in the 1970s

• First commercial company founded to develop genetically engineered products.
• Discovery of polymerases.
• Techniques for rapid sequencing of nucleotides perfected.
• Gene targeting.
• RNA splicing.

1980

• The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approves the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms, which allows the Exxon oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism.
• The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.
• The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed.
• Researchers successfully introduce a human gene - one that codes for the protein interferon - into a bacterium.

1981

• Scientists at Ohio University produce the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice.
• Chinese scientist become the first to clone a fish - a golden carp.

1982

• Applied Biosystems, Inc., introduces the first commercial gas phase protein sequencer, dramatically reducing the amount of protein sample needed for sequencing.

1983

• The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is conceived. PCR, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments, later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide.
• The first genetic transformation of plant cells by TI plasmids is performed.
• The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.
  
  The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found.

1984

• The DNA fingerprinting technique is developed.
• The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.
• The entire genome of the HIV virus is cloned and sequenced.

1985

• Genetic marking found for kidney disease and cystic fibrosis.
• Genetic fingerprinting enters the courtroom.
• Genetically engineered plants resistant to insects, viruses and bacteria are field tested for the first time.
• The NIH approves guidelines for performing experiments in gene therapy on humans.

1986

• University of California, Berkeley chemist describes how to combine antibodies and enzymes (abzymes) to create pharmaceuticals.
• The first field tests of genetically engineered plants (tobacco) are conducted.
• The Environmental Protection Agency approves the release of the first genetically engineered crop - gene-altered tobacco plants.

1987

• First field trials of a genetically altered bacterium.
• Frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that inhibits frost formation on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in California, the first authorized outdoor tests of an engineered bacterium.

1988

• Harvard molecular geneticists are awarded the first U.S. patent for a genetically altered animal - a transgenic mouse.
• A patent for a process to make bleach-resistant protease enzymes to use in detergents is awarded.
• Congress funds the Human Genome Project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species.

1989

• First field trial of a recombinant viral crop protectant.

Also in the 1980s

• Studies of DNA used to determine evolutionary history.
• Recombinant DNA animal vaccine approved for use in Europe.
• Use of microbes in oil spill cleanup - bioremediation technology.
  
  Ribozymes and retinoblastomas identified.

1990

• Chy-Max™, an artificially produced form of chymosin, an enzyme for cheese-making is introduced. It is the first product of recombinant DNA technology in the U.S. food supply.
• Human Genome Project - an international effort to map all of the genes in the human body - is launched.
• The first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-year-old girl suffering from an immune disorder.
• The first successful field trial of genetically engineered cotton plants is conducted. The plants had been engineered to withstand use of the herbicide Bromoxynil.
• The first transgenic dairy cow - used to produce human milk proteins for infant formula - is created.

1991

1992

• American and British scientists unveil a technique for testing embryos in vitro for genetic abnormalities such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.

1993

• The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulation.
• The Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) is created by merging two smaller trade associations.

1994

• The FLAVRSAVR™ tomato - the first genetically engineered whole food approved by the FDA is on the market.
• The first breast cancer gene is discovered.
• Approval of genetically engineered version of human DNAase, which breaks down protein accumulation in the lungs of CF patients.

1995

• The first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient.
• The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed for the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae.
• Gene therapy, immune system modulation and genetically engineered antibodies enter the clinics in the war against cancer.

1996

• The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson's disease provides an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment.

1997

• Scottish scientists report cloning a sheep, named Dolly, using DNA from adult sheep cells.
• A group of Oregon researchers claims to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.
• A new DNA technique combines PCR, DNA chips and a computer program providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes.

1998

• University of Hawaii scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells.
• Embryonic stem cells can be used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases.
• Scientists at Japan's Kinki University clone eight identical calves using cells taken from a single adult cow
• The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced.
• A rough draft of the human genome map is produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.

Also in the 1990s

• First conviction using genetic fingerprinting in the U.K.
• Isolation of gene that clearly participates in the normal process of regulating weight.
• Discovery that hereditary colon cancer is caused by defective DNA repair gene.
• Genetically engineered rabies vaccine tested in raccoons.
• Genetically engineered biopesticide approved for sale in the USA.
• Patents issued for mice with specific transplanted genes.
• First European patent issued for genetically engineered mouse sensitive to carcinogens.
• Breast cancer susceptibility genes cloned.
  
  Sources: Access Excellence, Genentech, Inc.
  Biotech 90: Into the Next Decade: G.
  Steven Burrill with the Ernst & Young High Technology Group
  Biotechnology Industry Organization
  International Food Information Council
  North Carolina Biotechnology Center
  Texas Society for Biomedical Research